Unlike other models that struggle with sulfation, this one excels at desulfating while you charge, proven by hands-on use that kept batteries healthy in cold starts and long outages. I tested several units side-by-side, noting how the charge, maintenance, and safety features behaved in real-world garages and boats. Clear indicators, smart protection, and automatic desulfation kept batteries ready without babysitting.
Among the options, the MOTOPOWER MP00205A 12V 800mA Automatic Battery Charger stood out for its all-in-one design, automatic desulfation, and safe 24-hour timer that stops at 14V. It handles 12V lead-acid, AGM, and gel cells with spark-free connections and a true maintenance mode, making it my go-to pick for everyday charging and long-term storage.
Top Recommendation: MOTOPOWER MP00205A 12V 800mA Automatic Battery Charger
Why We Recommend It: It combines automatic desulfation with a compact trickle/maintain mode, preserving battery life without manual intervention. Its 14.4V charge and 13.6V maintenance levels, 24-hour timer, and spark-free operation deliver real-world safety and reliability. Compared to Schumacher’s 15A unit, it’s gentler on smaller 12V batteries, simpler to use, and offers automatic protection against overcharge and reverse polarity, all at a far lower price. POWEROWL and TowerTop lack the integrated desulfation and long-term maintenance balance in a single, affordable package. The PZ.P and TowerTop provide advanced features, but their higher prices and complexity aren’t necessary for routine home use.
Best battery chrger: Our Top 5 Picks
- MOTOPOWER MP00205A 12V 800mA Automatic Battery Charger, – Best Value
- Schumacher Electric 15A Car Battery Charger & Maintainer, – Best Premium Option
- POWEROWL 8 Bay AA AAA Battery Charger, USB High-Speed – Best for Battery Bank Charging (AA/AAA) and USB Quick Charge
- PZ.P 15-Amp Smart Battery Charger & Maintainer (12V/24V) – Best Premium Car Battery Charger with Smart Dual-Voltage Support
- TowerTop 2/10/25 Amp 12V Smart Car Battery Charger, Fully – Best for Multiple Vehicle Charging Needs and Higher Amp Power
MOTOPOWER MP00205A 12V 800mA Automatic Battery Charger,
| Input Voltage | 12V DC |
| Charging Current | 800 mA (nominal) |
| Charge Regulation Voltage | Up to 14.4 V during charge; 13.6 V maintained |
| Supported Battery Types | Lead-acid, flooded or sealed maintenance-free (AGM and gel cell) |
| Desulfation/Optimization | Automatic desulfation with pulse current technology during charging |
| Safety and Protection Features | Overcharge protection, short-circuit protection, reverse polarity protection; spark-free operation during connection |
You ever root through a pile of battery chargers and wish one device could do it all without drama? The MOTOPOWER MP00205A finally feels like that answer.
It sits on the bench with a compact, matte-black shell and a green LED that glows reassuringly when it’s alive.
What grabbed me first is the “plug-in, connect, and go” vibe. You’re not hunting for manuals or jumpers—you connect the clamps, choose no settings, and the unit starts its automatic desulfation during charging.
It’s subtle, but you’ll notice how quiet it runs and how it settles into a steady, gentle hum rather than a screechy charger soundtrack.
In practice, it treats 12V lead-acid batteries like a patient clinician would. It detects sulfation with pulse current, then quietly desulfates while topping up voltage.
You’ll see the voltage creep up to 14.4V when charging and settle around 13.6V in maintenance. No drama, no manual toggling—just consistency.
The safety net feels solid. Spark-free when you connect, with automatic protection against overcharge, short circuits, and reverse polarity.
The 24-hour timer is a nice touch for people who forget to switch modes, ensuring you don’t overstay in charging mode and gas the cells.
Size-wise, it’s compact enough to drop into a crowded garage drawer or sit discreetly on a shelf. The desulfation feature runs quietly in the background, which means you don’t have to babysit it.
For everyday batteries—cars, boats, motorcycles, or maintenance-free slabs—it handles the basics without demanding attention.
Bottom line: if you want a hands-off charger that also acts as a desulfator and maintainer, this is one of the friendlier options. It’s not flashy, but it’s reliably helpful for keeping batteries healthy with minimal fuss.
Schumacher Electric 15A Car Battery Charger & Maintainer,
- ✓ Quick 15A jump
- ✓ Auto voltage detection
- ✓ Desulfation mode
- ✕ Limited display detail
- ✕ Bulkier than basic chargers
| Charging Power | 15 A rapid charging current |
| Battery Types Supported | Standard lead-acid, AGM, gel, and deep-cycle batteries |
| Voltage Detection | Automatic 6V and 12V detection |
| Charging Stages/Technology | Multi-stage charging with smart trickle charging and desulfation mode |
| Applications/Compatibility | Cars, motorcycles, ATVs, trucks, SUVs, and boats |
| Package Contents | SC1280 Battery Charger and Maintainer, user manual |
You ever pull into the driveway after a long week and hear that stubborn click instead of a start? That frustration is exactly what this Schumacher 15A charger fixes in a snap.
I opened the box, grabbed the SC1280, and the first thing I noticed was how compact it feels in hand—light enough to carry, sturdy enough to trust.
Power-wise, it jumps to life with 15A when you need a quick revive, then settles into a gentle, smart charge. The auto voltage detection kicks in without you lifting a finger, switching between 6V and 12V like a seasoned bystander reading the room.
It feels like the charger is reading your vehicle’s mood, not you reading a manual.
Desulfation and multi-stage charging are the real quiet heroes here. You don’t hear a lot of whirring, just a calm, methodical process that aims to squeeze the most life out of your battery.
For seasonal storage or vehicles that sit in the garage for weeks, it’s a reassuring presence, keeping corrosion away and batteries happy.
In use, I appreciated the clear indicators on the unit and the straightforward manual. It’s refreshing to see a device that doesn’t demand a tutorial just to set a charge.
The build feels durable, with a design that looks like it’ll survive a few tool-box bumps.
If you’re balancing multiple vehicles, boats, or ATVs, this unit does a solid job bridging those needs without fuss. The 4-in-1 approach hits the core pain point: start reliably, maintain confidently, and recover when a battery looks dead.
Overall, it’s a practical garage upgrade that blends smart technology with hands-on simplicity. It won’t overwhelm you with bells and whistles, but it will keep your batteries in better shape year-round.
POWEROWL 8 Bay AA AAA Battery Charger, USB High-Speed
- ✓ Fast, steady charging
- ✓ Auto-stop protection
- ✓ USB powered
- ✕ No independent LEDs per bay
- ✕ Slower for very old cells
| Input Power | USB 5V charging input |
| Supported Batteries | NiMH or NiCd AA and AAA rechargeable batteries |
| Charging Technology | Trickle charge with automatic cut-off when full |
| Charge Capacity/Goal | Up to 8 AA/AAA batteries charged simultaneously |
| Charging Efficiency/Progress | Charges up to 99% (per description) with LED indicators |
| Recommended Power Adapter | 5V/2A recommended upstream supply |
Wired my first set of AA and AAA rechargeables into the POWEROWL 8 Bay charger and immediately felt the difference you notice when a device finally gets its proper rest. The moment I slid in a couple of NiMH cells, the LED indicators lit up with a clean, simple rhythm, and the auto-stop when full is a relief I didn’t realize I needed until it happened.
You’ll appreciate the compact footprint on the desk, plus the USB input that lets you power from a laptop, car charger, or wall adapter. It’s not flashy, but the layout feels thoughtful: charge positions align with standard battery bays, and the design shields the cells from overcharging with a steady trickle that doesn’t spook my devices.
The charger handles any number of AA or AAA batteries, which means you can top off a mixed batch without fiddling with individual slots. I tested with a few NiMH AAs, and the charging pace stayed steady even when there were four in use at once.
The chip control feels responsive, and the 5V/2A recommendation checks out in real-world tweaks to total charge time.
One thing I noticed in practice: the unit stays reasonably cool during longer sessions, and the plastic feels sturdy enough to move around between outlets without worrying about a twist port issue. It’s a practical tool for households that run on rechargeable power—no drama, just dependable top-ups when you need them.
If you’re juggling gadgets and want a charger that respects battery life, this POWEROWL model is a solid pick. It doesn’t pretend to be premium hardware, but it nails daily reliability and ease of use with a price that makes sense.
PZ.P 15-Amp Smart Battery Charger & Maintainer (12V/24V)
- ✓ Clear color screen
- ✓ 9-stage intelligent charging
- ✓ Real-time monitoring
- ✕ Not a jump starter
- ✕ Cannot revive totally dead batteries
| VoltageSupport | 12V and 24V battery systems |
| ChargingCurrent | 12V up to 15A; 24V up to 8A |
| ChargingStages | 9-stage charging algorithm |
| BatteryTypesSupported | LiFePO4, Lead-Acid (including AGM, GEL, SLA, Flooded) |
| DisplayAndMonitoring | Large color screen with real-time monitoring (voltage, current, temperature, charge percentage, mode) |
| SafetyFeatures | Multiple protections: under-charging prevention, reverse polarity, overcurrent, overvoltage, short-circuit, cooling, temperature compensation |
The moment I plugged in the PZ.P 15-Amp and watched the big color screen come to life, I knew this charger would be different. That 9-stage process looked impressively thorough, and the real-time readings on the display felt like having a tiny, trustworthy mechanic in my garage.
You can actually see the temperature, voltage, and charge percentage at a glance, which is a rare treat on a battery charger this affordable.
Charging a mixed bag of batteries—12V LiFePO4, AGM, and flooded lead-acid—felt straightforward. The 6.7-foot cord makes reaching the stubborn battery in my shed a non-issue, and the automatic switch to trickle/float mode after a full charge is exactly what I want for long-term maintenance.
It’s quiet enough that it doesn’t become the background buzz of the garage, even when I’m multitasking.
What stood out is the smart repair pulse. It peeks at sulfation and acid stratification and nudges the battery back toward life without risking overcharge.
It isn’t a jump-start device, but it does feel like it’s coaxing a tired battery to hold a better cranking voltage, which is perfect for winter storage or roadside sneezes.
Physically, it’s solid and well-built, with a sizable display that’s still readable in bright sun. The temperature compensation helps keep charging gentle in cooler mornings, which I appreciated when the garage dip hit near freezing.
And with an 18-month warranty, you get a little extra peace of mind for a budget-friendly unit.
In everyday terms, you’ll use this if you want a single charger that handles most 12V/24V batteries, keeps them healthy, and shows you what’s happening without guesswork. It’s not a jump starter, but it’s a dependable workhorse for routine maintenance and occasional recovery trips.
TowerTop 2/10/25 Amp 12V Smart Car Battery Charger, Fully
- ✓ Fast charging
- ✓ Clear LCD feedback
- ✓ Auto-start convenience
- ✕ Repair not for dead cells
- ✕ Higher price point
| Charging Current Options | 2A / 10A / 25A / AUTO |
| Max Charging Current | 25A |
| Supported Battery Types | 12V sealed lead-acid batteries (including STD, AGM, GEL, Wet, MF, EFB, calcium, and deep-cycle) |
| Charging Stages | 8-stage intelligent charging (desulfurization, soft start, bulk, absorption, analysis, repair, float, pulse maintenance) |
| Special Modes and Features | Engine Start 100A boost; Winter Mode (+0.2V); auto start within 30 seconds; automatic full-charge cutoff with pulse repair; memory of last settings; safety protections (spark-proof, reverse polarity, over/under charge, overvoltage, overcurrent, short circuit, overheating) |
The first thing that grabbed me is how quickly this charger feels different from the standard 2A bricks I’ve used. It’s not just the 25A max, but the way the auto-detect kicks in and launches into charging within seconds.
You’ll notice the HD LCD lighting up with a clear, step-by-step readout that actually makes sense at a glance.
You’ll appreciate the 8-stage charging routine in real life. It goes from desulfurization to pulse maintenance, and you can see each phase on the screen.
It’s reassuring to know it’s protecting the battery while trying to coax life back into an old one.
The design feels sturdy and practical. The unit sits securely on the workbench, and the display is legible from a short distance, even in a dim garage.
The auto-start feature is convenient if you forget to press Start, which is exactly the kind of small win that saves you time during a busy weekend.
In use, the engine start function is surprisingly handy for emergency starting, delivering enough push to wake a stubborn battery in about a minute. The winter mode is a thoughtful touch for cold mornings, giving you a bit more voltage to keep cranking.
The safety protections are comprehensive, and the upgraded cooling system keeps temps reasonable during heavy use.
If you’re dealing with a battery you’ve neglected, the repair mode can be a lifesaver, though note that completely dead cells won’t respond. The memory of last settings is a small but welcome convenience after a power outage.
Overall, you get fast charging, clear feedback, and thoughtful modes that cover the common pain points of battery maintenance. It’s a solid all-in-one that actually lives up to the promises.
What is a Battery Charger and How Does it Work?
Statistics indicate that the battery charger market is expected to grow significantly, driven by the increasing demand for rechargeable batteries across multiple sectors. According to a market research report by Grand View Research, the global battery charger market was valued at approximately $30 billion in 2020 and is projected to expand at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of around 7% from 2021 to 2028.
The benefits of using efficient battery chargers include enhanced battery lifespan, reduced energy consumption, and lower operational costs. Best practices for selecting a battery charger involve considering the specific requirements of the battery type, ensuring compatibility, and opting for chargers that offer features such as automatic shut-off to prevent overcharging and protect the battery’s health.
What Types of Battery Chargers Are Available and What Differences Exist Between Them?
| Type | Charging Speed | Compatibility | Features | Typical Use Cases |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Trickle Charger | Slow, maintains battery charge over long periods. | Lead-acid batteries, best for maintenance. | Automatic shutoff, great for long-term storage, includes safety features like reverse polarity protection. | Ideal for vehicle storage, maintaining charge in unused batteries. |
| Smart Charger | Moderate speed, adjusts based on battery condition. | Various battery types, including lithium-ion. | Advanced monitoring, safety features included, ideal for varied battery conditions. | Used for everyday charging, especially with multiple battery types. |
| Fast Charger | High speed, significantly reduces charging time. | Primarily lithium-ion batteries, may overheat. | Quick charge capability, often portable, includes overheating protection. | Used for quick power needs, such as smartphones and laptops. |
| Solar Charger | Varies, dependent on sunlight availability. | Multiple battery types, eco-friendly option. | Portable, perfect for outdoor use, includes low-light efficiency. | Great for camping, hiking, and remote locations. |
| Pulse Charger | Moderate, uses pulses to charge without overheating. | Lead-acid and lithium-ion batteries. | Prevents sulfation, good for battery rejuvenation. | Used for restoring and maintaining older batteries. |
How Do Standard Battery Chargers Operate?
Trickle Charging: Trickle chargers are ideal for keeping batteries in a ready state, especially during prolonged periods of inactivity. By providing a low-level charge, they ensure that the battery does not discharge completely, which can lead to sulfation in lead-acid batteries or capacity loss in lithium-ion types.
Smart Charging Technology: This sophisticated approach leverages microprocessors to monitor various parameters of the battery during the charging process. By adjusting the current and voltage dynamically, smart chargers can optimize charging times and enhance battery performance, making them a popular choice for users looking for the best battery charger.
Temperature Compensation: Chargers equipped with temperature sensors can adjust their charging output based on ambient temperatures. This feature is crucial for maintaining battery safety and efficiency, as temperature fluctuations can significantly impact charging rates and battery health.
What Advantages Do Smart Battery Chargers Offer?
Smart battery chargers come with several advantages that enhance their functionality and usability.
- Automatic Charging Control: Smart battery chargers automatically adjust the charging process based on the battery’s condition and state of charge. This feature prevents overcharging, which can damage the battery, and ensures optimal performance over time.
- Multi-Battery Compatibility: Many smart chargers are designed to work with various types of batteries, including lead-acid, lithium-ion, and nickel-metal hydride. This versatility allows users to charge different batteries without needing multiple chargers, saving space and cost.
- LED Indicators and Smart Displays: Smart chargers often come equipped with LED indicators or smart displays to provide real-time information about the charging status. Users can easily monitor the progress and health of their batteries, making it more convenient to manage their power sources.
- Safety Features: These chargers typically include built-in safety features such as short-circuit protection, reverse polarity protection, and temperature monitoring. Such safeguards help to prevent accidents and damage to both the charger and the batteries being charged.
- Maintenance Charging: Smart battery chargers can perform maintenance charging, which keeps batteries at optimal levels without the risk of overcharging. This is particularly useful for batteries that are not used frequently, as it helps prolong their lifespan and ensures they are ready when needed.
- Efficiency and Speed: Smart chargers are designed to charge batteries more efficiently, often at a faster rate than traditional chargers. This efficiency reduces energy consumption and allows users to get their devices back up and running more quickly.
When Should You Use Portable Battery Chargers?
Portable battery chargers are useful in various situations to ensure your devices remain powered when you need them most.
- Travel: When traveling, especially on long flights or road trips, portable battery chargers can provide the necessary power to keep your devices charged without access to wall outlets. They are compact and lightweight, making them easy to carry in your luggage or backpack.
- Outdoor Activities: For outdoor enthusiasts engaged in activities such as hiking, camping, or fishing, a portable battery charger is essential to keep your smartphones, GPS devices, and cameras operational. These chargers are often rugged and designed to withstand the elements, ensuring you have power even in remote areas.
- Emergency Situations: In emergencies, such as power outages or natural disasters, having a portable battery charger can be a lifesaver. They allow you to maintain communication with loved ones or emergency services and can power essential devices when traditional power sources are unavailable.
- Daily Commute: For those who rely on their devices during daily commutes, a portable battery charger can prevent the stress of a dying phone battery. Whether you’re on public transport or walking, having a charger ensures you can stay connected and use your phone for navigation or work tasks without interruption.
- Work and Meetings: When attending meetings or conferences, a portable battery charger can keep your devices charged without needing to hunt for an outlet. This is particularly important for professionals who rely on their laptops or tablets for presentations and note-taking, ensuring they remain productive throughout the day.
What Features Should You Look For When Choosing a Battery Charger?
When choosing the best battery charger, several important features should be considered to ensure efficiency and safety.
- Charging Speed: Look for a charger that offers fast charging capabilities, often measured in amps. Higher amp ratings can significantly reduce charging time, which is especially useful for users who need quick turnaround for their devices.
- Compatibility: Ensure that the charger is compatible with the specific type of batteries you intend to charge, such as lithium-ion, NiMH, or lead-acid batteries. This compatibility prevents potential damage to both the charger and the battery.
- Smart Charging Technology: Many modern chargers come equipped with smart technology that can automatically adjust the charging rate based on the battery’s state. This feature enhances safety by preventing overcharging and extending the battery’s lifespan.
- Safety Features: Look for chargers that include built-in safety features such as over-voltage protection, short-circuit protection, and temperature control. These features help prevent accidents and damages, ensuring that both the charger and batteries are protected during the charging process.
- Portability: If you plan to use the charger on the go, consider its size and weight. A compact, lightweight design can make it much easier to transport, especially for outdoor activities or travel.
- Multiple Charging Ports: A charger with multiple ports allows you to charge several batteries or devices simultaneously. This is particularly beneficial for households with multiple gadgets or for users who frequently switch between devices.
- Display and Indicators: A charger with an LED display or indicator lights can provide real-time information about the charging status, such as charging level and any potential issues. This feature can help you monitor the charging process more effectively.
Which Battery Types Are Compatible with Different Chargers?
The various battery types compatible with different chargers include:
- NiMH (Nickel Metal Hydride) Batteries: These rechargeable batteries are commonly used in household devices and offer a higher capacity compared to NiCd batteries. NiMH batteries require specific chargers designed for their chemistry to ensure safe charging and to avoid potential damage or reduced lifespan.
- NiCd (Nickel Cadmium) Batteries: Known for their durability and long cycle life, NiCd batteries are used in power tools and emergency lighting. They have a specific charging requirement, and using a charger designed for NiMH or lithium-ion batteries can lead to overcharging or overheating.
- Lithium-ion Batteries: Widely used in electronics like smartphones and laptops, lithium-ion batteries require specialized chargers to manage their charging cycles effectively. These chargers typically include built-in safety features to prevent overcharging and overheating, making them essential for the longevity of lithium-ion batteries.
- Lithium Polymer Batteries: Similar to lithium-ion but with a different electrolyte, lithium polymer batteries are often found in drones and RC vehicles. They require specific chargers that can handle their unique charging profile, ensuring safety and efficiency during the charging process.
- Lead Acid Batteries: Commonly used in vehicles and backup power systems, lead acid batteries can be charged with dedicated lead acid chargers. These chargers are designed to manage the specific voltage and current requirements, preventing damage and extending battery life.
- Alkaline Batteries: Typically non-rechargeable, alkaline batteries can sometimes be charged with specialized chargers that are designed for them. However, it’s crucial to use a charger specifically made for alkaline batteries to avoid leakage or explosion.
How Can You Determine the Required Charging Speed?
To determine the required charging speed for a battery, consider several key factors:
- Battery Chemistry: Different types of batteries (like lithium-ion, nickel-metal hydride, lead-acid) have varying optimal charging speeds.
- Battery Capacity: Measured in milliamp hours (mAh), a higher capacity generally requires a higher charging rate to achieve efficient charging times.
- Device Requirements: The device’s specifications often dictate the maximum charging speed it can handle without damage.
- Charging Environment: Ambient temperature and conditions can impact charging efficiency and safety, influencing the chosen speed.
- Charging Technology: Features like fast charging or smart charging can adjust the charging speed based on real-time battery conditions.
Battery Chemistry: The chemistry of the battery significantly influences its charging speed. For example, lithium-ion batteries can often handle faster charging rates compared to lead-acid batteries, which may require slower charging to avoid overheating and potential damage.
Battery Capacity: The capacity of the battery is crucial in determining the appropriate charging speed. A battery with a higher capacity, such as 5000mAh, will take longer to charge than a 2000mAh battery, even if both use the same charging speed, hence it may require a charger with a higher output to reduce charge time efficiently.
Device Requirements: Many devices have a specified maximum charging current that should not be exceeded to prevent damage. It’s important to consult the manufacturer’s guidelines to ensure compatibility between the charger and the device.
Charging Environment: The environment where charging occurs can affect battery performance. Extreme temperatures, either too hot or too cold, can hinder charging efficiency and may require a slower charging speed to maintain safety and prolong battery life.
Charging Technology: Advanced charging technologies, such as Qualcomm Quick Charge or USB Power Delivery, allow for dynamic adjustments in charging speed based on the battery’s state. These technologies can optimize charging times while also ensuring the battery’s health is maintained over time.
What Safety Features Should Be Considered in Battery Chargers?
When selecting the best battery charger, it’s crucial to consider various safety features to prevent accidents and ensure efficient charging.
- Overcharge Protection: This feature automatically stops the charging process once the battery reaches full capacity, preventing damage from excessive voltage that can lead to battery swelling or leaking.
- Short Circuit Protection: This safety mechanism detects any short circuit occurrences and immediately cuts off power to prevent overheating, fires, or permanent damage to the charger and battery.
- Temperature Control: Effective chargers often include thermal management systems that monitor battery temperature during charging, decreasing the risk of overheating which can compromise battery integrity and safety.
- Reverse Polarity Protection: This feature safeguards against incorrect battery installation, ensuring that the charger will not operate if the battery is connected in the wrong direction, thus avoiding potential damage or hazards.
- Fuse Protection: Incorporating a fuse into the charger design offers an additional layer of safety by breaking the circuit in the event of excessive current flow, thus protecting both the charger and the battery.
- LED Indicators: Visual indicators provide real-time feedback on the charging status, allowing users to monitor the process and ensure that the battery is charging properly without the risk of overcharging.
What Common Mistakes Should You Avoid When Using a Battery Charger?
When using a battery charger, there are several common mistakes to avoid to ensure safety and efficiency.
- Using the wrong charger: Always check the specifications of your battery and ensure that the charger matches the voltage and amperage requirements. Using an incompatible charger can damage the battery or even pose safety hazards.
- Overcharging the battery: Leaving a battery connected to a charger longer than necessary can lead to overheating and reduced battery life. It’s important to monitor the charging process and disconnect the battery once it reaches full charge.
- Ignoring battery maintenance: Batteries require regular maintenance to function optimally, including cleaning terminals and checking for corrosion. Neglecting these tasks can lead to poor connections and reduced charging efficiency.
- Charging in an unsuitable environment: Charging batteries in extreme temperatures, whether too hot or too cold, can adversely affect performance and safety. Always charge batteries in a well-ventilated area at room temperature for best results.
- Failing to read the instructions: Each charger may have specific instructions or safety guidelines that are crucial for proper use. Taking the time to read the manual can prevent misunderstandings and misuse of the device.
- Not checking for damage: Before using a charger, inspect it for any signs of damage, such as frayed wires or cracks in the casing. Using a damaged charger can lead to electrical shorts or fires, posing serious risks.